Abstraction and Empathy
Tags: #art #art history #philosophy #aesthetics #psychology #culture #perception #abstraction #empathy
Authors: Wilhelm Worringer
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Overview
My work challenges the dominant paradigm in aesthetics, which I believe focuses too narrowly on the art of Classical antiquity and its descendants. By exploring the fundamental psychic forces driving artistic creation across cultures and throughout history, I aim to expand our understanding of what constitutes art and what drives its evolution. My central thesis is that the impulse to create art arises from a fundamental human need for ‘self-alienation’ which manifests in two distinct, opposing tendencies: empathy and abstraction. The ‘urge to empathy’ is a drive to connect with the organic world, seeking beauty and meaning in the vitality of living forms. This manifests in art through naturalism, where artists seek to capture the beauty of the real world. Conversely, the ‘urge to abstraction’ is an attempt to escape the chaos and uncertainty of the phenomenal world by creating a sense of order, regularity, and necessity in art. This impulse finds its purest expression in the ‘geometric style’, as seen in the art of primitive cultures who experience the external world as threatening and chaotic. The history of art, I argue, is an ongoing struggle between these two forces. I examine various examples of art from different cultures and periods, showing how these two fundamental urges have shaped stylistic choices and artistic expression. I pay particular attention to the art of primitive cultures, ancient Egypt, and pre-Renaissance Northern Europe, arguing that these often-overlooked forms offer valuable insight into the fundamental psychological forces driving artistic creation. Ultimately, I hope to demonstrate that there is no single, universal ‘art’, but rather a spectrum of artistic expression driven by diverse psychological needs. To truly understand and appreciate the art of different cultures and historical periods, we must move beyond our ‘Classical prejudice’ and learn to see art through the lens of the unique psychic states that gave rise to it.
Book Outline
1. Abstraction and Empathy
I begin by examining the widely accepted theory of empathy in aesthetics, which posits that we find beauty in art by projecting our own life and feelings onto the forms we perceive. I contend that this theory is only applicable to a limited subset of art, namely art driven by an urge to connect with the organic and the real. This urge towards ‘empathy’ finds its gratification in ‘naturalism’.
Key concept: ‘Aesthetic enjoyment is objectified self-enjoyment.’
2. Naturalism and Style
I contrast ‘naturalism’ with ‘style’, the latter being driven by an urge I term ‘abstraction’. The ‘urge to abstraction’ seeks refuge from the chaos and uncertainty of the phenomenal world by creating art with a sense of regularity, order, and necessity. These two urges are fundamental, opposing forces driving art’s evolution across cultures and history.
Key concept: The need for empathy and the need for abstraction to be the two poles of human artistic experience. . . . They are antitheses which, in principle, are mutually exclusive. In actual fact, however, the history of art represents an unceasing disputation between the two tendencies.
3. Ornament
The purest manifestation of ‘abstraction’ is the ‘geometric style’ – an art form built on the fundamental principles of symmetry and rhythm. We see this urge to abstraction most forcefully expressed in the art of primitive cultures who experience the external world as chaotic and threatening. For these cultures, art offers a refuge, a haven of order and stability in a world perceived as arbitrary and hostile.
Key concept: The style most perfect in its regularity, the style of the highest abstraction, most strict in its exclusion of life, is peculiar to the peoples at their most primitive cultural level.
4. Selected Examples from Architecture and Sculpture from the Viewpoints of Abstraction and Empathy
Looking closely at the development of art in different cultures, one sees that the ‘urge to abstraction’ manifests in two main ways: first, by approximating representations to a plane, thereby eliminating depth and the illusion of space; and second, by amalgamating representations with geometric-crystalline regularity, giving them a sense of timelessness and necessity. I examine examples from Egyptian, Mycenaean, and Greek art to illustrate this dynamic.
Key concept: Space is therefore the major enemy of all striving after abstraction, and hence is the first thing to be suppressed in the representation.
5. Northern Pre-Renaissance Art
Examining Northern European art prior to the Renaissance, we see a unique form of artistic expression. While dominated by linear, inorganic forms similar to the art of the ancient Orient, the art of the North exhibits a restlessness, a heightened sense of movement and expression not found in the art of cultures driven by pure ‘abstraction’. This dynamic tension between abstraction and a need to express inner disharmony, I argue, sets the stage for the development of the Gothic style.
Key concept: Thus on an inorganic fundament there is heightened movement, heightened expression. This is the decisive formula for the whole medieval North.
6. Transcendence and Immanence in Art
I argue that aesthetics is currently too focused on Classical art forms and our own modern interpretations of them. To truly understand artistic expression throughout history, we must move beyond this ‘Classical prejudice’ and recognize that art is a manifestation of a culture’s ‘psychic state’. Where a culture leans towards a transcendent worldview, emphasizing a separation of spirit and matter and seeking meaning beyond the material world, its art will reflect an urge towards abstraction. Conversely, cultures embracing an immanent worldview, seeing the divine as present within the world and finding meaning in the material and the sensual, are more likely to produce art driven by empathy and naturalism. Just as there are periods of Classical religion, there are periods of Classical art.
Key concept: To transcendentalism of religion there always corresponds a transcendentalism of art.
Essential Questions
1. What are the fundamental psychic impulses driving artistic creation, and how do they manifest in different art forms?
The core argument is that there are two fundamental and opposing artistic impulses: empathy, which seeks to connect with the organic world and leads to naturalism, and abstraction, which seeks refuge from the chaos of the world and leads to a preference for geometric and crystalline forms. These impulses stem from a basic human need for ‘self-alienation’, an attempt to find solace and meaning beyond the uncertainties of everyday existence. The urge to empathy finds its gratification in ‘naturalism’, while the urge to abstraction finds its beauty in the ‘life-denying’ qualities of abstract form.
2. How do you define ‘naturalism’ and ‘style’ in art, and what is their relationship to the concepts of empathy and abstraction?
Naturalism is characterized by the representation of organic forms and life, often striving for realistic or idealized depictions of the natural world. Style, on the other hand, is driven by the urge to abstraction, seeking to express order, regularity, and necessity through geometric and crystalline forms. While these two impulses seem diametrically opposed, the history of art reveals a constant tension and interplay between them, with different cultures and historical periods exhibiting varying degrees of each.
3. What is the essence of the ‘geometric style’ in art, and what are its psychological origins?
The geometric style is characterized by the use of simple lines and their development in purely geometrical regularity, devoid of any reference to natural objects. It represents the purest form of abstraction, offering a sense of order and stability in the face of the chaotic world. I posit that this style emerged from a ‘spiritual dread of space’, a feeling of unease and uncertainty in the face of the vast and unknowable universe. This dread was particularly acute in primitive cultures, for whom the world was often experienced as hostile and unpredictable.
4. How did the urge to abstraction manifest itself in three-dimensional art, particularly in sculpture, given its inherent connection to the organic world?
The history of art, from the ancient Egyptians to the Greeks and beyond, is characterized by a struggle to reconcile the three-dimensionality of sculpture with the abstract tendencies towards eternalization and planar representation. Two methods were employed: first, emphasizing material compactness to create a sense of unity and permanence, and second, incorporating sculpture into architecture, thereby subjecting it to a system of regularity. This incorporation could either enhance the organic qualities of the figure, as in Greek architecture, or further abstract it, as in Gothic.
5. Why is the current understanding of aesthetics limited, and how can we develop a more comprehensive understanding of artistic expression across cultures and history?
Aesthetics, as currently practiced, is limited by its focus on Classical art and its underlying empathy-centric bias. This narrow view neglects vast swathes of art history, particularly non-Western and pre-Renaissance art forms driven by abstraction. To truly understand artistic expression, we need to move beyond this ‘Classical prejudice’ and recognize that art is a manifestation of a culture’s ‘psychic state’, reflecting its relationship to the world and its need for ‘self-alienation’. This means recognizing the equal importance of the transcendent impulse in art, which seeks solace not in the organic but in the abstract, the eternal, and the necessary.
Key Takeaways
1. The ‘urge to abstraction’ in art is a response to the perceived chaos and uncertainty of the world.
The ‘urge to abstraction’ drives art forms that emphasize order, regularity, and geometric forms. These forms can evoke a sense of calm and stability, offering a refuge from the perceived chaos of the world. This explains the enduring appeal of geometric patterns and abstract art, which continue to resonate with audiences seeking a sense of peace and tranquility in a complex world.
Practical Application:
In AI-generated art, understanding this principle could help tailor algorithms to create images that resonate with specific audiences. For example, an AI trained on data from abstract art could generate designs for individuals seeking a sense of order and calm, while an AI trained on naturalistic art could generate imagery for individuals seeking beauty and vitality in the organic world. Recognizing and incorporating these different needs for ‘self-alienation’ could lead to more personalized and effective AI art generation.
2. There is a deep-seated human need to perceive objects as distinct, stable entities with a sense of permanence.
Ancient cultures, particularly the Egyptians, sought to represent objects in art as ‘closed material individuals’ – distinct entities with clear boundaries and a sense of permanence. This was achieved by emphasizing tactile compactness, planar representation, and geometric regularity. This suggests a deep-seated human need to perceive objects as stable and enduring, offering a sense of control and understanding in a world of constant flux.
Practical Application:
In user interface and product design, understanding the appeal of ‘closed material individuality’ can guide the creation of visually satisfying and intuitive forms. For example, designing icons and buttons with a clear sense of boundary and visual coherence can make them easier to perceive and interact with, enhancing user experience.
3. Art is not simply an imitation of nature but an expression of underlying structural principles.
Art is not solely about imitating nature. Instead, it involves abstracting underlying structural principles from the world and expressing them through form and composition. This explains the diverse stylistic choices across cultures, where artists have drawn inspiration not only from the organic world but also from the inherent regularity of geometric forms and the dynamics of mechanical forces.
Practical Application:
For AI engineers developing algorithms for image recognition and analysis, understanding this principle can improve their systems’ ability to interpret and classify artistic styles. For instance, instead of relying solely on visual features, an AI could analyze an artwork’s underlying formal structure and composition, identifying the presence of geometric patterns, linear rhythms, or organic curves. This could lead to more accurate and nuanced interpretations of art across different cultures and styles.
Suggested Deep Dive
Chapter: Appendix: Transcendence and Immanence in Art
This section delves deeper into the philosophical underpinnings of the book’s core arguments, exploring the relationship between a culture’s worldview and its artistic expression. It provides a framework for understanding the historical shift from transcendental art to Classical art and its implications for modern aesthetics.
Memorable Quotes
Chapter 1. 30
Whereas the precondition for the urge to empathy is a happy pantheistic relationship of confidence between man and the phenomena of the external world, the urge to abstraction is the outcome of a greater inner unrest inspired in man by the phenomena of the outside world; in a religious respect it corresponds to a strongly transcendental tinge in all notions. We might describe this state as an immense spiritual dread of space.
Chapter 1. 31
Tormented by the entangled inter-relationship and flux of the phenomena of the outer world, such peoples were dominated by an immense need for tranquility. The happiness they sought from art did not consist in the possibility of projecting themselves into the things of the outer world, of enjoying themselves in them, but in the possibility of taking the individual thing of the external world out of its arbitrariness and seeming fortuitousness, of eternalising it by approximation to abstract forms and, in this manner, of finding a point of tranquillity and a refuge from appearances.
Chapter 1. 35
Let anyone to whom this thesis of man’s primal need to free the sensuous object from the unclarity imposed upon it by its three-dimensionality, by means of artistic representation seems contrived and farfetched, recall that a modern artist, and a sculptor at that, has once more felt this need very strongly.
Chapter 2. 41
In other words, discussion must always be confined to an aesthetics of form, and we can speak of aesthetic effect only where inner experience moves within universal aesthetic categories—if we may carry over onto the province of aesthetics this expression of Kant’s for a priori forms.
Appendix. 98
The criterion of the organic is always the harmonious, the balanced, the inwardly calm, into whose movement and rhythm we can without difficulty flow with the vital sensation of our own organisms.
Comparative Analysis
My work, “Abstraction and Empathy”, distinguishes itself by challenging the prevailing empathy-centric aesthetics popularized by figures like Theodor Lipps. Unlike Lipps, who emphasizes the viewer’s projection of life onto art objects, I argue for the equal importance of ‘abstraction’. This concept, largely neglected in contemporary aesthetic discourse, stems from a desire for order and stability amidst the chaos of the phenomenal world, leading to a preference for geometric and crystalline forms. This perspective aligns with Alois Riegl’s concept of ‘artistic volition’ and challenges the materialistic approach of Gottfried Semper, who reduces art to a product of technological development. I expand on Riegl’s work by connecting artistic volition to a culture’s psychic state and demonstrating how this manifests in stylistic choices, particularly in non-Western and pre-Renaissance art. Unlike formalist approaches that prioritize aesthetic judgment, my analysis emphasizes understanding the diverse psychological motivations underlying artistic creation across cultures and history.
Reflection
While “Abstraction and Empathy” remains a seminal work in art history, its Eurocentric perspective and sharp dichotomy between abstraction and empathy require careful consideration. My assertion that the “urge to abstraction” is primarily a response to a ‘spiritual dread of space’ largely stems from my interpretation of Egyptian and primitive art. However, such generalizations risk overlooking the diverse motivations and cultural nuances within these artistic traditions. Further, while I acknowledge the limitations of empathy-centric aesthetics, the human capacity for empathy remains a powerful force in artistic experience, even in abstract art. My work is best understood not as a definitive theory but as a starting point for a more nuanced understanding of the diverse psychic impulses driving artistic creation across cultures and history. The book’s lasting contribution lies in its challenge to the narrow focus on Classical art and its call for a broader, more inclusive view of aesthetics, recognizing the equal validity of artistic expressions driven by both empathy and abstraction.
Flashcards
What is the ‘urge to empathy’ in art?
The urge to connect with the organic world and find beauty in the vitality of living forms. This manifests in art through naturalism, striving for realistic or idealized depictions of the natural world.
What is the ‘urge to abstraction’ in art?
The urge to escape the chaos and uncertainty of the world by creating a sense of order, regularity, and necessity in art. This finds its purest expression in the geometric style.
What is the ‘geometric style’?
A style characterized by the use of simple lines and geometric forms, devoid of any direct reference to natural objects. It represents the purest form of abstraction.
What is ‘spiritual dread of space’?
A psychic state characterized by a sense of unease and uncertainty in the face of the vast and unknowable universe, leading to a desire for order and stability.
How did sculptors attempt to reconcile three-dimensionality with the urge to abstraction?
It involves emphasizing material compactness and minimizing surface divisions to create a sense of unity and permanence.
What is another way sculptors reconciled three-dimensionality with the urge to abstraction?
By incorporating sculpture into architecture, subjecting it to a system of regularity that could either enhance its organic qualities (Greek architecture) or further abstract it (Gothic).
What is an ‘immanent’ worldview?
A worldview that emphasizes the unity of man and world, finding meaning in the material and the sensual, and often leading to naturalistic art.
What is a ‘transcendent’ worldview?
A worldview that emphasizes a separation of spirit and matter, seeking meaning beyond the material world, and often leading to abstract art.